Chapter 04: Post-Mauryan Trends in Indian Art and Architecture
Introduction to the Post-Mauryan Period
Political Landscape (2nd Century BCE onwards): After the vast Mauryan Empire, various rulers established control:
North and Central India: Shungas, Kanvas, Kushanas, and Guptas.
Southern and Western India: Satvahanas, Ikshavakus, Abhiras, Vakataks.
Religious Developments: The 2nd century BCE also saw the rise of major Brahmanical sects like the Vaishnavas and Shaivas. Worship of Yakshas and mother-goddesses continued.
Prominent Art Sites (2nd Century BCE): Vidisha, Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh), Bodhgaya (Bihar), Jaggayyapeta (Andhra Pradesh), Mathura (Uttar Pradesh), Khandagiri-Udaigiri (Odisha), Bhaja (near Pune), and Pavani (near Nagpur, Maharashtra).
Bharhut
Sculptural Style:
Height: Sculptures are tall, similar to Mauryan Yaksha and Yakshini images.
Relief: Sculptural volume is in low relief, emphasizing linearity.
Picture Plane: Images adhere closely to the picture plane.
Three-dimensionality: Illusion of 3D is created with tilted perspective in narrative panels.
Narrative Clarity: Enhanced by selecting main events. Fewer characters initially, gradually increasing.
Spatial Utilization: Sculptors maximize available space.
Hand/Feet Depiction: Folded hands in narratives and single figures are shown flat, clinging to the chest (due to shallow carving, projection wasn't possible). Feet often in awkward positions.
Stiffness: General stiffness in body and arms, though this gradually lessened with deeper carving and more naturalistic representation later.
Narrative Reliefs:
Effectiveness: Artisans used pictorial language effectively to convey stories.
Queen Mayadevi's Dream: Depicted with a descending elephant shown heading towards her womb, while she reclines on a bed.
Jataka Stories: Simple narration by clubbing events based on geographical location.
Ruru Jataka Example: Shows the Boddhisattva deer rescuing a man. In the same frame, the king with his army is about to shoot the deer, and the rescued man is shown pointing at the deer, breaking his promise.
Integration: Such Jataka stories became integral to stupa decoration.
Regional Variations: With increased stupa construction, regional stylistic variations emerged.
Characteristic Detail: A consistent feature in male images of the 1st-2nd centuries BCE is the knotted headgear.
Display: Some Bharhut sculptures are in the Indian Museum, Kolkata.
Sanchi
Stylistic Progression: Sanchi Stupa-1, along with Mathura and Vengi, marks the next significant phase in sculptural development.
Stupa-1 Features:
Circumambulatory Paths: Has both upper and lower pradakshinapathas (circumambulatory paths).
Toranas: Four beautifully decorated toranas (gateways) depicting events from the life of the Buddha and Jataka stories.
Figure Composition: In high relief, filling the entire space.
Naturalism: Posture depiction becomes more naturalistic, reducing body stiffness.
Projection: Heads have considerable projection into the picture space.
Movement: Rigidity in contours decreases, imbuing images with movement.
Narrative Elaboration: Narrations become more elaborate.
Carving Techniques: Appear more advanced than Bharhut.
Symbolism: Buddha is still represented symbolically (empty throne, feet, chhatra, stupas).
Dream Episode: Depiction remains simple, showing the reclining queen and elephant at the top.
Historical Narratives: Events like the siege of Kushinara, Buddha's visit to Kapilavastu, and Ashoka's visit to Ramgrama Stupa are carved with considerable detail.
Stupa-1 Context: A world heritage site, originally a small brick structure that expanded and was covered with stone, vedika (railing), and toranas.
An Ashokan lion-capital pillar with an inscription on the southern side indicates Sanchi as a center of monastic and artistic activity. Stupa-2 (Bharhut-like): Carvings on Stupa-2's vedika are stylistically earlier than Stupa-1, showcasing low relief and linearity.
Mathura, Sarnath, and Gandhara Schools
Emergence of Art Centers (1st Century CE onwards): Gandhara (Pakistan), Mathura (Northern India), and Vengi (Andhra Pradesh) became important art production centers.
Human Form of Buddha: Buddha, previously symbolic, gains a human form in Mathura and Gandhara.
Gandhara School: Confluence of Bactrian, Parthian, and local Gandhara traditions. Hellenistic features are prominent in Buddha images. Meditating Buddha (3rd-4th CE), Bodhisattva (5th-6th CE).
Mathura School:
Strong Local Tradition: So strong that it spread to other parts of northern India (e.g., Sanghol, Punjab).
Buddha Image: Modeled on earlier Yaksha images (robust, fleshy).
Early Images: Jain Tirthankara images and portraits of kings (e.g., headless Kanishka) are also found.
Brahmanical Images: Vaishnava (Vishnu) and Shaiva (lingas, mukhalingas) images found, often represented by their ayudhas (weapons). Buddhist images are most numerous.
Sculptural Characteristics: Bold carving, voluminous images projecting from the picture plane, round and smiling faces, reduced heaviness for relaxed flesh. Garments clearly visible, covering the left shoulder.
Evolution of Style (2nd - 6th Century CE):
2nd Century CE: Images become more sensual, rotundity increases, fleshier.
4th Century CE: Trend continues, but massiveness and fleshiness reduce; flesh becomes tighter. Drapery volume also reduces.
5th-6th Centuries CE: Drapery integrated into the sculptural mass, transparent quality in Buddha robes evident.
Sarnath School:
Emerged as an important center alongside Mathura.
Buddha Images: Often have plain transparent drapery covering both shoulders. Halo around the head has very little ornamentation.
Comparison (Mathura vs. Sarnath Buddha): Mathura Buddha images continue to depict folds of drapery and profusely decorated halos, while Sarnath Buddhas have plain, transparent drapery and minimal halo ornamentation.
Study: Museums at Mathura, Sarnath, Varanasi, New Delhi, Chennai, Amaravati.
Buddhist Monuments of South India (Vengi)
Prominent Sites: Jagayyapetta, Amaravati, Bhattiprolu, Nagarjunkonda, Goli, etc. (all in Andhra Pradesh).
Amaravati Stupa:
Mahachaitya: Has a grand stupa.
Preservation: Sculptures now in Chennai Museum, Amaravati Site Museum, National Museum (New Delhi), British Museum (London).
Structure: Like Sanchi, has pradakshinapatha enclosed by a vedika with narrative sculptures.
Unique Feature: Domical stupa structure is covered with relief stupa sculptural slabs. Torana has disappeared.
Chronology: Evidence of construction in 3rd century BCE, but best developed in 1st and 2nd centuries CE.
Buddha Images: Early phase (like Sanchi) devoid of Buddha images. Later phase (2nd and 3rd centuries CE) sees Buddha images carved on drum slabs and other places.
Figure Composition: Interior space created by varied figure postures (semi-back, back, profile, frontal, semi-frontal, side).
Sculptural Form (General Characteristics in the region):
Emotion: Characterized by intense emotions.
Form: Figures are slender, show a lot of movement, bodies often in tribhanga (three bends).
Composition: More complex than Sanchi.
Linearity: Becomes flexible and dynamic, breaking staticness.
Three-dimensionality (Relief): Created using pronounced volume, angular bodies, and complex overlapping.
Clarity: Absolute attention paid to clarity of form despite size and role in narrative.
Narratives: Profusely depicted, including Buddha's life events and Jataka stories (some unidentified).
Birth Event Depiction: Queen reclining on a bed with attendants, small elephant carved on upper frame symbolizing Queen Mayadevi's dream. Another relief shows four birth events.
Nagarjunkonda and Goli (3rd Century CE): Animated movement in figures reduces. Artists create effect of protruding body surfaces with relatively low relief, making forms suggestive and integral.
Independent Buddha Images: Found at Amaravati, Nagarjunkonda, and Guntapalle.
Rock-cut Caves: Guntapalle (near Eluru) has small apsidal and circular chaitya halls (2nd century BCE). Anakapalli (near Vishakhapatanam) has rock-cut stupas. Sannati (Karnataka) is the largest stupa site.
Cave Tradition in Western India
Chronology: Many Buddhist caves dating from the 2nd century BCE onwards.
Architectural Types:
Apsidal Vault-Roof Chaitya Halls: (Ajanta, Pitalkhora, Bhaja).
Apsidal Vault-Roof Pillarless Halls: (Thana-Nadsur, Maharashtra).
Flat-Roofed Quadrangular Hall with Circular Chamber: (Kondivite, Maharashtra).
Chaitya Hall Facade: Dominated by a semi-circular chaitya arch with an open wooden front; sometimes no dominating chaitya arch window (Kondivite).
Common Feature: A stupa at the back is common in all chaitya caves.
Modifications (1st Century BCE): Hall becomes rectangular (Ajanta Cave No. 9), with a stone-screen wall facade (Bedsa, Nashik, Karla, Kanheri).
Karla Chaitya Hall: Biggest rock-cut chaitya hall. Features: open courtyard with two pillars, stone screen wall for rain protection, veranda, stone-screen facade, apsidal vault-roof chaitya hall with pillars, and a stupa at the back. Decorated with heavy human and animal figures that show movement.
Kanheri Cave No. 3: Further elaboration on Karla plan, though unfinished. Shows progression of carving.
Later Preference: Quadrangular flat-roofed design became most preferred.
Viharas: Excavated at all cave sites. Plan: veranda, hall, and cells around hall walls.
Examples: Ajanta Cave No. 12, Bedsa Cave No. 11, Nashik Cave Nos. 3, 10, 17.
Decorations: Early viharas carved with interior decorative motifs (chaitya arches, vedica designs over cell doors).
Nashik Viharas: Distinct facade design, front pillars with ghata-base and ghata-capital with human figures.
Junnar (Ganeshleni): Vihara cave, later had a Ganesha image, became a chaityavihara with a stupa added at the back.
Buddha Images in Stupas (4th-5th Century CE): Stupas in viharas start having attached Buddha images.
Large Excavations: Junnar (over 200 caves), Kanheri (108 caves).
Flourishing Sites: Ajanta, Pitalkhora, Ellora, Nashik, Bhaja, Junnar, Karla, Kanheri continue to flourish.
Ajanta
Location: Aurangabad District, Maharashtra.
Number of Caves: Twenty-nine caves.
Chaitya Caves: Four chaitya caves:
Early Phase: 2nd and 1st century BCE (Cave Nos. 10 and 9).
Later Phase: 5th century CE (Cave Nos. 19 and 26).
Chaityaviharas: Large, decorated with sculptures and paintings.
Painting Significance: Only surviving example of painting from 1st century BCE and 5th century CE.
Chronology Challenge: Lack of dated inscriptions makes precise chronology difficult.
Cave Grouping:
Early Phase: Cave Nos. 10, 9, 12, 13.
Earlier than Late 5th Century CE: Cave Nos. 11, 15, 6 (upper and lower), 7.
Late 5th - Early 6th Century CE: Rest of the caves.
Elaborate Caves: Cave Nos. 19 and 26 (apsidal-vault-roof), facades decorated with Buddha and Bodhisattva images.
Cave No. 26: Very big, entire interior carved with various Buddha images, including the largest Mahaparinibbana image.
Vihara-Chaitya Caves: Consist of pillared veranda, pillared hall, cells, and main Buddha shrine at the back. Shrine images are grand.
Unfinished Caves: Cave Nos. 5, 14, 23, 24, 28, 29.
Important Patrons: Varahadeva (PM of Vakataka King Harishena - Cave 16), Upendragupta (local king/feudatory - Caves 17-20), Buddhabhadra (Cave 26), Mathuradasa (Cave 4).
Survived Paintings: Many in Cave Nos. 1, 2, 16, 17.
Paintings at Ajanta:
Early Phase (1st Century BCE - Cave Nos. 9 and 10):
Figures: Broad, heavy proportion, arranged linearly.
Lines: Sharp.
Colors: Limited.
Naturalism: Considerable naturalism, no overstylization.
Narrative: Events grouped by geographical location, separated by architectural bands.
Connection: Figures resemble Sanchi sculptures, showing simultaneous progress of lithic and painting traditions. Headgear (frontal knot) similar to sculptures.
Second Phase (Buddha figures on walls/pillars of Caves 9 & 10): Different from 5th century CE figures.
Later Phase (Mainly Caves 1, 2, 16, 17 - 5th Century CE):
Typology: Many variations. Outward projections used.
Lines: Clearly defined, rhythmic, strong, energetic. Brown thick dark lines used as contours.
Volume: Body color merges with outer line to create volume.
Figures: Heavy, like Western Indian sculptures.
Highlights: Attempts to give highlights.
Skin Colors: Diverse, representing a multicoloured population (brown, yellowish brown, greenish, yellow ochre).
Painterly Quality (Caves 16 & 17): Precise, elegant, not ponderous like sculptures. Movements rhythmic.
Orderly & Naturalistic (Caves 1 & 2): Well integrated with sculptures. Simple architectural setting. Figures delineated in circular form for 3D and special effects. Half-closed, elongated eyes.
Guilds: Typological and stylistic variations suggest different guilds worked on paintings.
Themes: Buddha's life events, Jatakas, Avadanas.
Specific Examples: Simhala Avadana, Mahajanaka Jataka, Vidhurpundita Jataka cover entire walls.
Chaddanta Jataka: Early Cave No. 10 (detailed, geographically grouped, follows Pali text). Cave No. 17 version is different.
Famous Figures: Padmapani and Vajrapani (Cave No. 1, best preserved).
Influences: Some figures in Cave No. 2 show affiliation with Vengi sculptures and Vidarbha sculptural tradition.
Ellora
Location: Aurangabad District, Maharashtra (100 km from Ajanta).
Number of Caves: Thirty-four Buddhist, Brahmanical, and Jain caves.
Uniqueness: A unique art-historical site with monasteries of three religions dating from 5th to 11th century CE. Stylistic eclecticism (confluence of many styles).
Religious Differences: Caves show ongoing differences between Buddhism and Brahmanical faiths.
Buddhist Caves (12 caves):
Many images of Vajrayana Buddhism (Tara, Mahamayuri, Akshobhya, Avalokiteshwara, Maitrya, Amitabha).
Size: Big, single, double, and triple-storeyed (unique achievement).
Pillars: Massive.
Paintings: All caves plastered and painted, but nothing visible remains.
Shrine Images: Big Buddha images, generally guarded by Padmapani and Vajrapani.
Cave No. 12 (Triple-storey): Images of Tara, Avalokiteshwara, Manushi Buddhas, Vairochana, Akshobhya, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha, Amoghsiddhi, Vajrasatva, Vajraraja.
Brahmanical Caves (13-28):
Only Cave No. 14 is double-storeyed.
Many dedicated to Shaivism, but images of Shiva and Vishnu in various Puranic forms are depicted.
Shaivite Themes: Ravana shaking Mount Kailash, Andhakasurvadha, Kalyanasundara.
Vaishnavite Themes: Different avatars of Vishnu.
Sculptural Characteristics: Monumental, protruding volume creating deep recession. Heavy, sophisticated handling of volume.
Guilds: Various guilds from Vidarbha, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, leading to diverse sculptural styles.
Cave No. 16 (Kailash leni): A rock-cut temple carved from a single rock (unique achievement, discussed later).
Important Shaivite Caves: Cave Nos. 29, 21 (plan of Cave 29 similar to Elephanta main cave).
Quality: Sculptural quality of Caves 29, 21, 17, 14, 16 is amazing for monumentality and vigorous movements.
Jain Caves (Later - 9th Century CE): Pillar designs grow more ornate, decorative forms gain heavy protrusion.
Bagh Caves
Location: Dhar district, Madhya Pradesh.
Type: Rock-cut cave monuments, carved during ancient India, mostly Satvahana period.
Excavation: Master craftsmen carved on perpendicular sandstone rock face across Baghani stream.
Survival: Out of original nine caves, only five survived, all viharas (monk resting places) with a quadrangular plan.
Chaitya: A small chamber, usually at the back, forms the Chaitya (prayer hall).
Cave No. 4 (Rang Mahal): Most significant, known as 'Palace of Colours' due to visible wall and ceiling paintings.
Other Painted Caves: Cave Nos. 2, 3, 5, 7 also have remnants of tempera mural paintings.
Painting Technique: Reddish-brown gritty, thick mud plaster laid on walls/ceilings, then lime-priming, then paintings.
Preservation: Most paintings carefully removed in 1982 and preserved in Archaeological Museum of Gwalior.
Elephanta Caves and Other Sites
Location: Near Mumbai.
Dominant Faith: Shaivite faith.
Style: Contemporary with Ellora, sculptures show slenderness, stark light and dark effects.
Continuity of Rock-cut Caves: Continued in the Deccan:
Maharashtra: Elephanta.
Karnataka: Badami, Aihole (Chalukya patronage).
Andhra Pradesh: Vijayawada area.
Tamil Nadu: Mahabalipuram (Pallava patronage).
Patronage Shift (Post-6th Century CE): Art history development became more dependent on political patronage than collective public patronage of early historic periods.
Terracotta Figurines: Found widely, showing a parallel tradition to religious lithic sculptures and independent local traditions. Used as toys, religious figurines, or for healing.
Cave Tradition in Eastern India
Location: Mainly coastal Andhra Pradesh and Odisha.
Guntapalle (Eluru district, AP):
Unique site with structured stupas, viharas, and caves excavated at one place.
Chaitya Cave: Circular with a stupa in the circular hall and a chaitya arch at the entrance. Relatively small.
Vihara Caves: Numerous, small dimensions, decorated with exterior chaitya arches. Rectangular, vaulted roof, single or double-storeyed (without large central hall). Date back to 2nd century BCE.
Rampaerrampallam (AP): Moderate small excavations, rock-cut stupas on hillock.
Anakapalli (near Vishakhapatnam): Caves and a huge rock-cut stupa carved out of hillock (4th-5th centuries CE). Unique for having the biggest rock-cut stupas in the country. Many votive rock-cut stupas around the hillock.
Odisha (Udaigiri-Khandagiri caves):
Location: Near Bhubaneswar.
Purpose: Meant for Jain monks, with inscriptions of Kharavela Jain kings.
Excavations: Numerous single-cell excavations. Some carved from huge independent boulders shaped like animals.
Big Caves: Include a pillared veranda with cells at the back. Upper part of cells decorated with chaitya arches and narratives (continuing in folklores).
Figures: Voluminous, move freely, excellent qualitative carving.
Later Excavations: Some caves in this complex date to 8th-9th centuries CE.
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