Chapter 03: Arts of the Mauryan Period - Notes
Introduction:
6th Century BCE: Marked the beginning of new religious and social movements in the Gangetic valley in the form of Buddhism and Jainism, which were part of the Shraman tradition.
Popularity: Both religions gained popularity by opposing the varna and jati systems prevalent in Hindu religion.
Rise of Magadha: Emerged as a powerful kingdom, consolidating its control over other regions.
4th Century BCE: The Mauryas established their power.
3rd Century BCE: A large part of India was under Mauryan control.
Emperor Ashoka: The most powerful king of the Mauryan dynasty, who patronized the Buddhist Shraman tradition in the 3rd century BCE.
Religious Practices: Had many dimensions and were not confined to just one particular mode of worship. Worship of Yakshas and mother-goddesses was prevalent, indicating multiple forms of worship existed.
Buddhism's Dominance: Nevertheless, Buddhism became the most popular social and religious movement. Yaksha worship was very popular before and after the advent of Buddhism and was assimilated into both Buddhism and Jainism.
Pillars, Sculptures, and Rock-cut Architecture
Buddhist Tradition: Construction of stupas and viharas as part of monastic establishments became central to the Buddhist tradition.
Mauryan Artistic Uniqueness: In this period, apart from stupas and viharas, stone pillars, rock-cut caves, and monumental figure sculptures were carved at several places.
1. Pillars
Ancient Tradition: The tradition of constructing pillars is very old, also observed in the Achaemenian empire.
Distinctive Mauryan Pillars:
Rock-cut: Mauryan pillars are monolithic (rock-cut), demonstrating the carver's exceptional skills.
Contrast with Achaemenian: Achaemenian pillars were constructed in pieces by masons.
Emperor Ashoka's Pillars: Stone pillars were erected by Ashoka, found in the north Indian part of the Mauryan Empire, with inscriptions engraved on them.
Pillar Capitals: The top portion of the pillar was carved with capital figures like the bull, the lion, the elephant, etc.
Characteristics: All capital figures are vigorous and carved standing on a square or circular abacus. Abacuses are decorated with stylized lotuses.
Major Sites: Existing pillars with capital figures were found at Basarah-Bakhira, Lauriya-Nandangarh, and Rampurva in Bihar, and Sankisa and Sarnath in Uttar Pradesh.
2. Lion Capital, Sarnath
Significance: The finest example of Mauryan sculptural tradition and India's national emblem.
Carving Detail: Carved with considerable care – voluminous roaring lion figures standing firmly on a circular abacus. The abacus itself is carved with figures of a horse, a bull, a lion, and an elephant in vigorous movement, executed with precision, showing considerable mastery in sculptural techniques.
Symbolism: This pillar capital symbolizes Dhammachakrapravartana (the first sermon by the Buddha), a standard symbol of this great historical event.
Structure (Originally Five Components):
Shaft: Now broken into many parts.
Lotus Bell Base: An inverted lotus flower shape.
Drum on the Bell Base: Carved with four animals (horse, bull, elephant, lion) proceeding clockwise.
Four Majestic Addorsed Lions: Seated back to back.
Crowning Element - Dharmachakra: A large wheel, now broken and displayed in the Sarnath site museum.
National Emblem: The capital, without the crowning wheel and the lotus base, has been adopted as the National Emblem of Independent India.
Artistic Features:
Monumentality: The monumentality of the image is easily noticeable.
Lion's Musculature: The facial musculature of the lions is very strong. The inverse lines of the lips and their projection show the sculptor's observation for naturalistic depiction.
Polished Surface: The surface of the sculpture is heavily polished, typical of the Mauryan Period.
Abacus Depiction: The abacus features a chakra (wheel) with twenty-four spokes in all four directions, and finely carved figures of a bull, a horse, an elephant, and a lion between each chakra.
Dhammachakra Motif: The chakra motif becomes significant as a representation of the Dhammachakra in Buddhist art.
Viewing Angle: Conceived to be viewed from all sides, having no fixed viewpoints.
Other Sites: A lion capital was also found at Sanchi, though in dilapidated condition. The motif of the lion-capital-pillar continued into later periods.
3. Monumental Images of Yakshas, Yakshinis, and Animals
Discovery: Found in different parts of India, belonging to the 3rd century BCE, along with pillar columns with capital figures and rock-cut caves.
Popularity of Yaksha Worship: Shows its prevalence and how it was incorporated into figure representation in Buddhist and Jaina religious monuments.
Yakshas and Yakshinis Sculptures: Large statues are found at many places like Patna, Vidisha, and Mathura. These monumental images are mostly in a standing position.
Distinguishing Element: A key distinguishing feature in all these images is their polished surface. Faces are depicted in full round with pronounced cheeks and clear physiognomic detail.
4. Didarganj Yakshini
Significance: A life-size standing image of a Yakshini holding a chauri (flywhisk) from Didarganj near modern Patna, a prime example of Mauryan sculptural tradition.
Description: Housed in Patna Museum, it's a tall, well-proportioned, free-standing sandstone sculpture with a polished surface. The chauri is in the right hand; the left is broken.
Sculptor's Sensitivity: Displays sophistication in form and medium treatment. The sculptor's sensitivity towards the round, muscular body is clearly visible.
Physical Features: Round, fleshy cheeks, a relatively small neck, sharp eyes, nose, and lips. Muscle folds are properly rendered. Necklace beads are fully round, hanging to the belly. The tightening of the garment around the belly creates a bulging effect.
Drapery: The lower garment is rendered with great care; every fold is shown by protruding lines clinging to the legs, creating a somewhat transparent effect. A middle band of the garment falls to the feet, adorned with thick bell-ornaments.
Pose: The image stands firmly on its legs. Heaviness in the torso is depicted by heavy breasts. The back is equally impressive, bare, with hair tied in a knot. Drapery at the back covers both legs. Incised lines on the back of the image continue the depiction of the flywhisk.
5. Terracotta Figurines
Distinct Delineation: Terracotta figurines show a very different delineation of the body compared to stone sculptures.
6. Rock-cut Elephant, Dhauli (Odisha)
Significance: A monumental rock-cut elephant at Dhauli in Odisha displays modeling in round with a linear rhythm.
Ashokan Edict: It also bears an Ashokan rock-edict.
Execution Quality: These examples are remarkable in their execution of figure representation.
7. Lomus Rishi Cave, Bihar
Location: A rock-cut cave carved at Barabar hills near Gaya in Bihar.
Facade: The cave's facade is decorated with a semicircular chaitya arch as the entrance.
Elephant Frieze: An elephant frieze carved in high relief on the chaitya arch shows considerable movement.
Interior Structure: The interior hall is rectangular with a circular chamber at the back. The entrance is on the side wall of the hall.
Donation: This cave was donated by Ashoka to the Ajivika sect.
Significance: Lomus Rishi cave is an example from this period. Many Buddhist caves of subsequent periods were excavated in eastern and western India.
Stupas, Viharas, and Chaityas
Buddhist and Jaina Complexes: Stupas, viharas, and chaityas are part of Buddhist and Jaina monastic complexes, with the largest number belonging to the Buddhist religion.
Stupa Structure Example: An example of a stupa structure from the 3rd century BCE is at Bairat in Rajasthan.
Great Stupa at Sanchi: Built with bricks during Ashoka's time and later covered with stone with many new additions.
Popularity of Buddhism: The subsequent construction of many such stupas indicates the widespread popularity of Buddhism.
Donations and Patronage
Inscriptional Evidence: From the 2nd century BCE onwards, numerous inscriptional pieces of evidence mention donors and, at times, their professions.
Patronage Pattern: Very collective in nature, with few examples of sole royal patronage.
Patrons: Ranged from lay devotees to gahapatis (householders) and kings.
Guild Donations: Donations by guilds are also mentioned at several sites.
Artisans' Names: Few inscriptions mention artisans by name, such as Kanha at Pitalkhora and his disciple Balaka at Kondane caves in Maharashtra.
Artisan Categories: Categories like stone carvers, goldsmiths, stone-polishers, carpenters, etc., are also mentioned in inscriptions.
Developments in Stupa Architecture
Early Phase (From 2nd Century BCE): Stupas were elaborately built with additions like enclosing the circumambulatory path with railings and sculptural decoration.
Consistent Elements: A cylindrical drum and a circular anda with a harmika and chhatra on top remained consistent, with minor variations in shape and size.
Gateways: Apart from the circumambulatory path, gateways (toranas) were added.
Space for Artists: Elaborations in stupa architecture provided ample space for architects and sculptors to plan and carve images.
Depiction of Buddha in Buddhist Art
Early Phase (Symbolic Depiction): In the early phase of Buddhism, the Buddha was depicted symbolically through footprints, stupas, lotus thrones, chakras, etc. This indicated simple worship, respect, or historization of life events.
Narrative Tradition: Gradually, narrative became part of the Buddhist tradition. Events from the life of the Buddha and the Jataka stories were depicted on the railings and toranas of the stupas.
Narrative Types: Mainly synoptic narrative, continuous narrative, and episodic narrative were used in the pictorial tradition.
Themes: While events from the Buddha's life became an important theme, Jataka stories also became equally important for sculptural decorations.
Key Events from Buddha's Life: Frequently depicted events included his birth, renunciation, enlightenment, Dhammachakrapravartana, and Mahaparinibbana (liberation from the cycle of birth).
Frequently Depicted Jataka Stories: Chhadanta Jataka, Vidurpundita Jataka, Ruru Jataka, Sibi Jataka, Vessantara Jataka, and Shama Jataka.
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