The Tradition of Manuscript Painting: Comprehensive Notes
These notes will help in understanding the history and development of Indian art, particularly painting, with a special focus on manuscript illustration.
1. Theoretical Foundations of Indian Painting
Main Source: The third section of the Vishnudharmottara Purana, which contains a chapter called 'Chitrasutra'. It is considered a significant sourcebook for Indian art, especially painting.
Subject Matter: This chapter relates to the 'art of creating figures' (Pratima Lakshana), which is referred to as the art doctrines (dharmasutras) of painting.
Technical Details:
Techniques, Tools, and Materials: Essentials for painting.
Surface: Mentions painting on walls or murals.
Perception and Perspective: Methods to make a painting appear realistic and deep.
Three-dimensional forms of human figures: Making figures lively and raised.
Six Limbs of Painting (Shadanga):
Rupabheda (Visual differentiation/Form): Distinguishing between various shapes and forms.
Pramana (Measurement/Proportion): Correct measurements, proportions, and structure.
Bhava (Expression): Depicting emotions in a painting.
Lavanya Yojana (Aesthetic composition): Beautiful composition and charm.
Sadrisya (Likeness): Resemblance to the actual object or person.
Varnikabhanga (Brushwork and color usage): Skillful use of brushes and colors.
Impact: These art doctrines were followed by artists for centuries, forming the foundation for all Indian painting styles.
2. Miniature Painting in the Medieval Period
Characteristic: Medieval paintings were called 'miniature paintings' due to their small size.
Observation: They were meant to be held in hand and viewed closely.
Purpose: Their purpose was not to be displayed on walls, as the walls of palaces and courts were adorned with frescoes (wall paintings).
3. Manuscript Illustration
Definition: A significant part of painting is known as manuscript illustration, which involved the depiction of epics, poetic verses, and various religious, literary, and musical texts (manuscripts).
Structure:
Handwritten verses were written in clear rectangular spaces at the top of the pictorial panel.
Sometimes the text was written on the reverse side of the main picture page instead of directly on it.
They were systematically divided into various sections, each containing several illustrations or pages.
The corresponding text for each page (folio) was inscribed at the top of the illustration or on its reverse.
Example Collections: Illustrated compilations of Ramayana, Bhagavata Purana, Mahabharata, Gita Govinda, Ragamala, etc.
Preservation: Each collection was wrapped in a piece of cloth and stored as a bundle/potli in the library of the king or patron.
4. Colophon Page (Pushpika Page) and Historical Significance
Important Page: The most crucial page of a collection was the colophon page (Pushpika Page).
Information: It contained details such as the name of the patron, the artist or scribe, the date and place where the manuscript was created, or the completion date of the illustration, and other important details.
Challenges: Over time, many colophon pages were lost or destroyed, forcing scholars to describe paintings based on their style and other evidence.
Sensitivity of Paintings: Paintings are sensitive to fire, humidity, and other calamities.
Social Role:
Artworks were considered invaluable and precious.
They were portable.
They were widely presented as gifts during the marriages of princesses or exchanged among kings and courtiers.
They were carried to distant regions by pilgrims, monks, traders, and storytellers, leading to the exchange of styles (e.g., collections of paintings from Bundi and Mewar).
5. Reconstruction of Painting History: Challenges
Difficulty: Reconstructing the history of painting is an unprecedented task.
Undated Artworks: There are more undated artworks compared to dated ones.
Chronological Gaps: When arranged chronologically, many gaps are found, making it difficult to estimate the development or richness of the illustrations.
Scattered Pages: The situation becomes more complex when pages from original manuscripts are scattered across various museums and private collections.
Role of Scholars: These challenges compel scholars to constantly revise and redefine the chronology. Undated paintings are classified based on their style and circumstantial evidence.
6. West Indian Painting Style
Centers: Flourished in the western part of India, with Gujarat as its main center. It also included the southern part of Rajasthan and the western part of Central India.
Patronage:
Due to significant ports in Gujarat, there were prosperous merchants and local chieftains who became strong patrons of art.
Mainly the merchant class of the Jain community patronized themes related to Jainism, hence it is also known as 'Jain Painting'.
Shastra Daan Tradition: Donating illustrated manuscripts to monastic libraries ('bhandars') was considered a philanthropic and religious act, which encouraged the Jain style.
Major Illustrated Texts:
Kalpasutra: The most popular illustrated text of the Jain tradition. It describes events from the birth to the nirvana of the 24 Tirthankaras.
Life of Mahavira: Depiction of conception, birth, renunciation, enlightenment, first sermon, and Mahaparinirvana.
Trishala's 14 Dreams: Illustrations of the 14 auspicious dreams seen by Mahavira's mother, Trishala, at the time of his conception (elephant, bull, lion, Goddess Lakshmi, pitcher, etc.).
Kalakacharya Katha: The story of Acharya Kalaka, who rescued his sister (a Jain ascetic) from a wicked king. It depicts thrilling events and Kalaka's journey.
Uttaradhyayana Sutra: Describes Mahavira's teachings and the code of conduct for monks.
Sangrahani Sutra: A 12th-century cosmological text, including concepts of the universe's structure and space.
Page Structure: Texts either had very few or excessive illustrations. Specific pages were divided into sections for writing and illustration.
Preservation: To hold manuscript pages together, wooden covers called 'patlis' were used at the top and bottom, tied together by a string through a hole.
Material: Before the advent of paper in the 14th century, early Jain painting was done on palm leaves (the earliest manuscript dates to the 11th century). Leaves were prepared and inscribed with sharp tools.
Early Illustrations: Due to limited space on palm leaves, illustrations were restricted mainly to the 'patlis', depicting figures of deities and Jain acharyas with bright colors.
Stylistic Characteristics:
Composition: Development of a special type of planned and simplified language, with the pictorial space divided into sections for different events.
Colors and Lines: Bright colors, clear influence of fabric ornamentation, prevalent use of thin, undulating lines.
Faces: Use of an extra eye to depict the face in three dimensions.
Architecture: Depiction of Sultanate-era domes and pointed arches (reflecting the political presence of Sultans in Gujarat, Mandu, Jaunpur, Patan).
Indigenous Influence: Influence of indigenous and local lifestyle in canopies, curtains, tables, chairs, costumes, etc.
Landscape: Depiction of natural scenes was symbolic rather than detailed.
Golden Age: Approximately 1350-1450 CE (one hundred years) is considered the most creative period of Jain painting.
Changes: During this period, there was a significant change in the structure of paintings, where attractive landscapes, dancing human figures, and musicians playing instruments were depicted in the margins alongside the main illustrations of deities.
Symbol of Prosperity: The abundant use of gold and lapis lazuli in the paintings indicates the prosperity and social status of the patrons.
Other Subjects: Besides religious texts, Tirthapatas (pilgrimage scrolls), Mandalas, and non-religious stories were also illustrated for the Jain community.
Parallel Tradition: In the latter half of the 15th and 16th centuries, a parallel tradition of painting existed among chieftains, landlords, wealthy citizens, etc., depicting secular, religious, and literary themes.
This represents an indigenous tradition that developed before the styles of Rajput courts and the influence of the Mughals.
Examples: Mahapurana, Chaurapanchasika, Aranyaka Parva of Mahabharata, Bhagavata Purana, Gita Govinda.
Naming: This period and style are also called 'Pre-Mughal' or 'Pre-Rajasthani Style' or 'Indigenous Style'.
Style of Human Figures: A special style of human structure developed during this period, showing transparent garments and a balloon-like head covering (with stiff and sharp edges) on the heroine's head.
Other Formal Elements: Depiction of water bodies, horizons, flora, and fauna with various types of lines, influencing early 17th-century Rajasthani painting.
7. Sultanate Painting Style
Emergence: After the Sultanate dynasties from Central Asia came to power at the end of the 12th century, Indian paintings began to show Persian, Turkic, and Afghan influences, especially in regions where Sultans patronized painting (like Malwa, Gujarat, Jaunpur).
Fusion: In these courts, the work of local and some Central Asian artists led to the emergence of a new style from the fusion of indigenous and Persian styles, known as 'Sultanate Painting'.
Characteristics: It was more of a 'methodology' than a style, with a clear Persian blend – Persian elements (color, anatomy, subtlety of ornamentation, simple natural scenes) appeared alongside indigenous illustration methods.
Best Example: 'Nimatnama' (Book of Recipes), painted in Mandu during the reign of Nasir Shah Khalji (1500-10 CE).
It also provided guidelines for preparing dishes, hunting, medicines, cosmetics, and perfumes.
Other Examples: Stories based on Sufi ideas and 'Laurachanda' paintings.
8. Pala Painting Style
Period: Illustrated manuscripts written during the time of the Pala rulers (750 to mid-12th century) in eastern India are examples of early painting from the 11th and 12th centuries. This was the last major period of Buddhist art.
Centers: Mahaviharas (universities) like Nalanda and Vikramashila were great centers of Buddhist knowledge and art.
Countless Buddhist manuscripts and images of Vajrayana Buddhist deities were painted on palm leaves here.
There were also workshops for casting bronze sculptures.
Spread: Students and pilgrims from Southeast Asia came to these centers for education and religious learning and carried back samples of Pala-era Buddhist art, including bronze sculptures and illustrated manuscripts. This led to the spread of Pala art to countries like Nepal, Tibet, Burma, Sri Lanka, and Java.
Stylistic Characteristics:
In contrast to the angular lines of Jain painting, the Pala style is characterized by rhythmic and flowing lines and a light color palette.
Similar to Ajanta, the Pala style reflects a sculptural approach in monasteries and a parallel art style in paintings.
Main Example: 'Ashtasahasrika Prajnaparmita' (at the Bodleian Library, Oxford). This is an excellent example of a Pala-era Buddhist manuscript on palm leaf.
It was illustrated at Nalanda University during the fifteenth regnal year of the Pala ruler Ramapala (last quarter of the 11th century).
It has six illustrated pages and painted wooden covers on both sides, which protected the manuscript.
Decline: The Pala dynasty weakened after the arrival of Muslim invaders. Ultimately, Pala art came to an end in the first half of the 13th century with the destruction of Buddhist monasteries.
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